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The Arab's Impact on European Civilization: by Abbas Mahmoud Al-Akkad(View All Articles by: Abbas Mahmoud Al-Akkad) |
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- Who are the Arabs?
- Heavenly Beliefs
- Arts of Life and Behavior
- Writing
- Trades in Peace and War
- Originality and Derivativeness
- Medicine and Science
- Geography, Astronomy and Mathematics
- Literature
- Fine Arts
- Music
- Philosophy
- Civilization
- The State and its Organization
- The Payment of a Debt
- Sociology and Statesmanship
- Parliamentary Government
- Nationalism
- Religious Movements
- Morals and Customs
- Literature and Art
- The Press
- Summary
Who Are the Arabs ?
Are they a people who go back further in history than the name they are known by today ? Most probably they are the origin of the Semitic race from which have branched out the chaldeans, Assyrians, Canaanites and Hebrews and all other Semitic people that settled between the two rivers, Palestine and the surrounding desert and towns. The Abyssinian people may be connected with the Arab people by Genealogy although they are a mixture of Semites and Hamites
Each of these people talks in one of the different dialects of the one language, which is the origin of the Semitic languages. The signs of this language is the common 3-letter verb construction in all its branches; the similarity of their pronouns and vocabulary, and a great many roots and derivatives. A further evidence was the resemblance between their physical traits before their marriage on a large scale into the surrounding African and Asian peoples.
If all these peoples have one origin, it is most probable and most conceivable that this origin stems from the Arab Peninsula for the following reasons:
- The change-over of the people from pastoral life to
agricultural life is a stage in the normal evolution of history; it is
abnormal that people change from a settled town-life to a pasture-life in
the desert.
- The Peninsula of Arabia - in is well-known isolation - is the most conservative of places and maintains its original state, it is also the most place short of the necessary feeding resources to satisfy its inhabitants, a fact that impels them to emigrate to the neighboring river-valleys.
It was established that emigration in remote and near ages of history was from the directions of Bahrain and the holy places, the most recent instance took place after Islam with simultaneous movement of Arabs to Iraq and Syria in the reign of the Caliph Abu Bakr Al-Siddiq.
There is nothing to prevent modern history from being used as evidence for ancient history, particularly when it is completely devoid of stories, whether known or inferred, about the emigration of riverine people and the inhabitants of river-valleys to the peninsula of Arabia in remote or recent times. The Sumerians who inhabited the area between the two ancient rivers, were there 10,000 years ago, and in has been established that the Semites were the people who left their homeland and moved to the area between the Two Rivers where had risen capitals bearing Semitic names such as Babel (Bab-Allah or Bab Ayel).
There is another viewpoint which claims that the Semites rose in another place than the Arabian Peninsula:
This view is strongly voiced by the renowned Professor (Guidi the Great), an Italian scientist well-known in Cairo. This scientist bases his argument on the similarity between the Semitic languages and the numerous names of plants and waters in their earliest Dialects. He believes that the common use of this vocabulary in the Semitic languages indicates an origin in fertile hands, abounding in plantation and rivers, and not in the Arabian desert and its like.
This view is flimsy because it is not founded on strong grounds; nor does the condition of the Arabian Peninsula prevailing long before modern discoveries support it. Further evidence comes from the condition of the Peninsula as indicated by the discoveries of stratigraphy, climatology and anthropology.
Vast meadows and fertile lands were by no means unknown in the Southern and North-Eastern parts of the Peninsula at Bahrain and Yamama Valley. These places were frequented by emigrants in ancient times; sometimes those emigrants came from Yemen to Bahrain, and beyond Bahrain to the area between the Two Rivers the Syrian desertland; sometimes they proceeded from the first parts of Bahrain to its Northern outskirts.
The site of Yamama remained after Islam, renowned for its
vast pasture-land, gurgling springs heavy rainfall and dense meadows which
were the remnants or a more fertile and inhabitable land in former times. The
German traveler Schoenvert noticed that wheat, barley, buffaloes, goats,
mutton and cattle had been found in Yemen and ancient Arabia before they were
domesticated in Egypt and Iraq.
According to the latest scientific discoveries, the Arabian Peninsula was
exposed in the very ancient times to drought and earth-quakes. Aridity
superseded fertility over the ages until the land had mostly turned to desert
by historic times. The state of the Arabian Peninsula is sufficient to explain
the resemblance between the Semitic languages in the words «fertility, fruits,
water», but the other view, that Professor Guidi, does not explain the
hypothesis that the Arabs had emigrated, say from between the Two Rivers or
from Syria to the arid desertland. This hypothesis rests on no evidence either
in the early accounts, or in plausible circumstances and familiar precedents,
of which examples are given in modern history.
we can therefore state that descendants of the Arabs originating in their first Peninsula have lived in the middle of the habitable world for 5,000 years at least, and that whatever benefits Europeans have obtained from these regions throughout the ages was an Arab heritage or a heritage which spread in the world after the Arabs had admixed with the people of other countries.
This heritage is not small because it includes the original concepts for Europeans - of Reason, Spirit, and the causes of civilization which are : (1) Religious beliefs (2) Art of living and conduct (3) Arts of writing and education (4) Art of peace and war and the exchange of goods.
Heavenly Beliefs
When mention is made of the beliefs Europeans have received
from the heritage of the Arabian Peninsula or the heritage of the Semitic
peoples, the first thing that draws attention is the Scriptural religions.
The three scriptural religions - Mosaic, Christian and Islamic - appeared and spread among the various peoples of the Arabian Peninsula and extended after their emigration to the neighboring countries.
But we do not mean these religions when we talk in this chapter about heavenly beliefs because they are visible and standing in our present time and need no reference to history and comparison of chronicles and stories.
We mean by heavenly beliefs all that the ancient Europeans know about the sky, its planets and their orbits and its alleged dominance over mundane creatures; its horoscope which affects all beings, whether it comes under the title of "Astrology" or under «Divination and Soothsaying».
There is no doubt that the Arabs lived in countries with clear skies than the European countries. They therefore anticipated the sons of those overcast and foggy countries in observing the stars, watching for their rising and setting the celestial vaults. Although it was easy for them to observe the stars, they constantly entertained hopes of rainfall, and of observing the meteorites and gaining experience of the most suitable times for their day and night long trips across the desert.
Their science served the city and town-life which rose in Mesopotamia, as it is established that the month- and-day division, which had been adopted by the Chaldean and Semitic countries bore the stamp of the ancient Arabic language. Intercalation in the calculation of months and the grouping of days into weeks were a relic of the Semites in these countries and remained so among the Arabs in the desert until after Islam.
Whatever speculations are made about deriving it from the Sumerian civilization of Mesopotamia the «week» (usbou') was not of the making of the Sumerians, and was not known to them before the emergence of the Babylonians.
Thus the Europeans had received from those first Arab peoples their beliefs about the week and the gods of the days, and their influence on creatures, daily occurrences and cultivation.
The European names of the days still convey the sense of heavenly beliefs, which were held by the ancient forefathers of the Arabs, and are still used in the various European languages.
In the first volume of the Book «Ikhwan Al-Safa» about the first hours of the day occurs this passage.
«1 know that the day and night, and their hours, are divided between the planets. The first hour of Sunday is allotted to the Sun; the first hour of Monday is allotted to the Moon; the first hour of Tuesday is allotted to Mars; the first hour of Wednesday is allotted to Mercury; the first hour of Thursday is allotted to Jehovah; the first hour of Friday is allotted to Venus, and the first hour of Saturday is allotted to Saturn».
However, we shall omit the division of the nights and hours because they are provided for in the division of the primary days.
The Day of the Sun is called in English «Sunday».
The Day of the Moon is also called in English «Monday». Likewise, Tuesday means the 'Day of Theors', God of war known to the primitive peoples of the North. This name is further explained by the corresponding French word 'Mardi' which means the "Day of Mars".
Wednesday' means the day of `Mercury" the «God of Ideas and Arts» known to the ancient Teutons. This name is also further explained by the corresponding French word `Mercredi' which means the day of 'Mercure' i.e. Mercury in English.
Thursday in English means the day of `Thor', God of Thunder known to the ancient Teutons, and the corresponding French word `Jeudi' indicates that it is the day of `Jehovah' (Jovis Dies) to which the Sumerians used to supplicate. It is worth noting that when the Arabs entreat to God, they say «Ya' Huw».
Friday means he Day of `Frig,. The goddess, and wife of Mercury who has the same character as that of Venus. This explanation can be clearly inferred from the corresponding French word `Vendredi' which means the day of `Venus'.
Saturday means the day `Saturn'.
Thus the names of the week days point out that belief in divination, which had been taken from Arab descendants, was deeply-rooted in the European peoples from the East to the West; and from the North to the South. This belief was linked up with the daily life, horoscopes, and the influence of the spheres on creatures and daily occurrences.
This belief is therefore of greater importance and effect on living than a borrowed calendar.
Their emotional life was impressed by the names and
characteristics of these gods. They entertained the feelings of sacredness,
anger, love, sentimentality and beauty.
The name of the Greatest God (Jove) or «Jehovah» is derived, as mentioned
before, from the name «Ya Huw» which we (Arabs) still use to this day.
The God of War and Anger is taken in word and sense, from the ancient Sumerians, as Mars is clearly a misconstruction of the word `Mareikh'.
The God of Love or the `Fascinating Virgin' is clearly a misconstruction of the Sumerian word 'Bent'. They used to begin it with the letter 'B', but it was later miss-constructed and replaced by `V' as has happened in many other words. That happened to the other names of `Venus'; they miss-constructed `Ashtar' as `Star' (which we see). (Ashtar) means in the Arabic language of ancient Yemen `Athtar' later the Sumerians introduced it into the Northern art of the Arabian Peninsula as Ashtar or Ashtrout.
They also derived the word `Adonis' God of virility and beauty from the Canaani word 'Adonai' which means Master or God.
Thus they connected their daily life and emotions with the divine doctrines which they had taken down from Arab descendants. They had not only copied from astronomy and star tabulations, but also continued to copy from the Arabs in this branch of science until long after Islam, as will be pointed out in some chapters of this book. Their language still includes dozens of Arabic names of stars and Arabic terms of astronomy, with or without a phonetic change.
Arts of Life and Behavior
The great school of arts of life and behavior - which ranked among other schools of philosophy known as the `Greek Philosophy - had been oriental in the origin of its professors, its principles, and its thought; its thought uniquely impressed the thinking of the Original Greek Sages.
By this Oriental school we mean the school of the Rouaqien. The Sponsor of this School was called «Zeno» who was in origin a Canaanite or «Phoenician» as the Greeks used to call some Canaanites. Zeno was born on the Eastern coast of Cyprus at the end of the 4th century B.C.
Some of the leaders of this school were born in Sidaa, or on the bank of the River Aas or the River Trigris.
This school had a great influence on Greek culture, then Roman culture, then the Neo-Platonic school which appeared in Alexandria, and it continued to exert influence on European thought and behavior until the ages of Renaissance and Reformation. Thus the Rouoqi Philosophy was a torch-light for Reformers that illuminated for them the path to perfection, happiness, and practical wisdom in life.
The influence of this school is self-evident in the European literature during the Roman Empire. Seneca, Cicero, Epic Titus and Marcus Aurelius were followers of the Rouaqis. This school excelled over all other schools all over the world. It was unparalleled in its longevity, and the range of its extensiveness during the period of the Greeks and Romans. The Rouaqi Pattern was followed by Westerners until the ages of The French Philosopher Descaries and the American philosopher Emmerson, and their contemporary disciples.
The stamp of the Semitic mentally - which is almost that of the Arabian Peninsula - was noticeable in all the teachings of the Rouaqui school, viz, in metaphysics or natural science or ethics.
It upheld monotheism, and linked action with God, and reaction with matter. Sometimes it was inclined to the unity of being in its metaphysical researches.
In natural science, it fostered the principle that «the existing thing is that which acts and reacts», to the exclusion of all other ideal or fantastic suppositions. All that exists in the universe can be referred to sense, experience and the ability to act and react. They might have been the pilot-patrons of the Experimental school which appeared 2,000 years later. «Strabo», the great Geographer, believed that Mokhos Al-Sidaoui was the first enunciator of the «Molecule» before the Trojan War. He related it to the account rendered by the well-known Rouaqi philosopher Bossidneos. Thus he precedes others in broaching the questions of the ' molecule' and the `atomic bomb».
As regards ethics, they appraised philosophical research by its usefulness in bringing about a better life, happiness and perfection. To them the ideal ethical conduct consists in self-restraint, cultivating the will and disowning greed and lusts.
It is not difficult to relate the reasons for that Rouaqi penchant, or this ancient Arabic philosophy. It stems from three sources, each of which can orientate it in that direction. These three sources are the dominance of the tribe, the influence of religion and the power of the state and order.
The tribe imposes on its members patience, a hard life and the preservation of its old whole tribe. Each individual therefore has to account for all relations between him and the members of his tribe and other tribes. All that an individual feared was to be (disowned) and thus to become irrevocably unfit for reinstatement, and of no account.
Then comes the influence of religion and priesthood after the tribe had taken up the civilization rites and inherited customs. Old priesthood does not differ from the rites and arts relevant to life and conduct. The individual who renounced it was liable to grave danger, equal to disownment or worse, because he would be excommunicated from his tribe and from the followers of God.
Concomitant, with the influence of religion was the dominance of order and law of the awe-inspiring state, which was based on family relationships and the rites of worship, or on lineal heredity and the faith conscientiously adhered to.
If these three sources were agreed on the establishment of a school of wisdom, no wonder that that school was established on the lines of Rouaqi schools, the rise of which was known, and understandable among the Arab descendants. However, it is strange not to be able to relate, at the first glance, the reasons for the spread of this school throughout the Greek and Roman environments, in other words, throughout Europe. It would have been impossible to understand the reasons for that spread, had it not been for the psychological unrest of Europeans after the conquests of Alexander and before the call to the Christian Faith.
Writing
We cannot over-emphasize the benefits derived by humanity from the invention of letters to record meanings and figures to record number. The record of all human knowledge is effected by this valuable invention. There is little divergence of views among historian and researchers that Arabic and Latin alphabets are derived from one source, and that Europeans had relied on Canaanites or Arameans in deriving the first letters of their alphabet, which resemble in pronunciation and structure some Semitic Letters, particularly the letters A, B, C, D, which are all known in the Semitic languages.
Most researchers support the possibility that the Canaanite or Aramean letters were gradually taken from Egyptian letters copied from ancient hieroglyphic pictures. They believe that the table which Flanders Betri came across in the Sinai Peninsula in 1906, contains something between the old pictographs and the alphabetical letters published by the Canaanites and the Arameans. They assess the age of this tablet at upward of 3500 years, when the Arameans were living in Sinai Peninsula.
The hieroglyphic pictures in Egypt may have preceded their like in other parts of the world in view of the abundance of papyrus and writing ink in the Nile Valley. But the Europeans did not derive them direct from the Nile Valley as the priests were keen on concealing these secrets... When the letters of the alphabet became in the course of time established and widespread they moved into the vicinity of Egypt, in Sinai and on its Eastern frontiers, where the Arameans and Canaanites had been living.
There is no doubt that the people of the Arabian Peninsula have the credit of inventing that valuable means of publication and propagation, because they exported it to the Asian and European nations. The Indians took their alphabetical letters from Yemen, and the Greeks took theirs from the Arabs in Palestine.
The system of figure-writing came much later than the system of letter-writing. The evaluation of the arithmetical figures dates back to the Semitic people, who developed the Indian `numbers they had derived from the Indians after Islam, and added to it the mark '0' (Zero) and the decimal system. Thence forward these numbers have been known to the Europeans as «Arabic Numerals. The word `ZERO' is a derivation from its original name.
Trades in Peace and War
Isaac Taylor thinks the Greeks had derived their weights and coins from the Babylonians through the Amorites and Lidyans of Asia Minor.
The Arameans had tribes in Iraq, Sinai and Palestine. They spread what they had derived from Mesopotamia. The Greek got in contact with them in the Eastern ports of Asia Minor up to the frontiers of Sinai. They copied from them the means of civilization and commerce long before they were known to the peoples of Europe. The Greeks are old-established navigators; but they had anticipated the Canaanites in this trade as the latter were devoted to transit trade, which they almost monopolized in the Eastern Mediterranean until after the days of Alexander the Great, and the rise of Alexandria. They were greatly helped in promoting by the abundance of timber for shipbuilding in Canaan, of crops which they sold and exchanged in the near and remote ports, and by the site of their country along the shores of a sea into which flocked the Asian traders from the farthest countries.
It is possible that the Greeks learnt shipbuilding from the Canaans or the Babylonians. Perhaps the story of Noah and his ark is of interest in this respect, because his ark is the oldest vessel mentioned in history. Undoubtedly that vessel was not built in the lands of the Greeks; it was built in countries near to the lands of the Old Testament, or near to the land between Iraq and Palestine. Traces of the Old vessels of Phoenicians were found in South Africa. Herodotus mentioned the trips of Phoenicians and Egyptian during the reign of the Pharaoh Nichaos. They were the first people to be well-acquainted with the Eastern Coast of Mica whereas the Greeks know that part of Africa by hearsay in the age of Homer.
However difficult having precedence may be nowadays, it was not difficult for the Canaanites - whom the Greeks called Phoenicians - to widen the range of their navigation, and to build maritime settlements in distant parts on a scale that was never attained by the Greeks in the old times. If they had derived from the Semites weights, coins, writing, star observation and the characteristics of astronomical days, it is very probably that they had learnt from them the trades of navigation, commerce, shipbuilding and their steering across the seas in accordance with astrology and stars.
It can be noted from the speech about the Greek's derivations from the above states in the affairs of daily life and general civilization that Epicures, called the father of medicine, was brought up in the island of Qoss, and that Galen, the most reputed doctor in Greece, was brought up in Asia Minor, and that they traveled across the Lands of Canaan, Aramea and Egypt. There is no disagreement that Epicures and Galen derived their science from the medicine of ancient Pharaohs. But the knowledge derived by the people of Asia Minor from Canaan and Babylon must include medical information, which is concomitant with the ancient civilizations, and cannot be excluded under supposition.
This is a brief summary of the ancient civilization; there was not a trade in peacetime which the Greeks had not learnt from Arab descendants, or which they had not taken down from those who had anticipated them..
Under these circumstances - namely that the Semites were wholly of Arab lineage - they must have the credit of initiating the arts of war from which the Romans had benefited, particularly from the famous Carthagean leader, Hannibal. The battle of Cannae in which the Romans were defeated and lost nearly half their troops is still debatable and a pivot around which revolves discussion and research work and a reference for the latest arts of warfare in the European Military Schools. This battle was an instance of the many different arts of warfare with which that Great Leader surprised the Romans, such as the transport of troops on land and by sea, their landing on the open shores and climbing with them to the peaks of the mountains; the use of newly invented ships in the sea, the initiation of quick plans for using animals in terrestrial battles, such as the elephant and the horse.
There is evidence to the origin of Hannibal that can be derived from his name, birth- place and the history of his emergence. This evidence can be fallen back upon in case the historian links Hannibal to Arab lineage, and does not consider him a pure Arab. He emerged in the third century B.C. when -the Arab nation was on the verge of its modern evolution (which lasts until this day) his name was in a dialect of Arabic, prevalent at that time or very nearly Arabic. His name «Hanna Baal» is a synonym of the name «Namal Baal» or «Namat Allah» (meaning God's grace in Arabic). His native town was called «Qarriet Hdash» (meaning the modern village). It was miss-constructed and written «Qartash», then «Cartage» as pronounced by the Romans. His father was called «Hami Al-Qarrieh» (meaning protector of the village) and has been changed to «Hamilcar».
The above treatise can be summed up in the following words the Europeans were the disciples of the Arabs before Europe has posed itself as the tutor of others. This fact cannot be discounted by the allegation that the Sumerians - inhabitants of Mesopotamia - were descendants of the Aryans. However, this allegation is worth studying and deserves to be given more weight.
It is an established fact, over which there in no divergence of views, that the astronomical information acquired by the Europeans, and on which they had based their belief in the planets and the days, has a Babylonian tinge whether in the nouns or in the epithets. The art of writing was exported to Europeans and Indians by the sons of the Arabian Peninsula in the North and South. Whatever the opinion regarding initiation in the first stages of evolution may be, it is very clear that the first derivations by Europeans from the lessons of astronomy, writing, Rouaqi wisdom, cause of commerce, navigation and construction have carried the Semitic stamp. These derivations had not any trace of a Sumerian origin.
Originality and Derivativeness
Originality is common to all civilizations. Each civilization created some of its features and borrowed others. It has its own characteristic traits among world civilizations. There is no civilization whatsoever that was unique in its originality or derivativeness or was devoid of characterizing traits that distinguished it from other civilizations.
The new controversy about the Aryans and Semites has set the Europeans against the Arab civilization, which they accuse of being entirely derivative. They saw fit to rate Arab civilization below Aryan civilizations even if the latter are oriental. They allege that Aryan civilization has the advantage of originality and free thought particularly in the field of theoretical researches envisaging science for science's sake, and not for application or utility in life. The distinction of the Eastern Aryans ends in the distinction of the European race in its earliest state, by virtue of which it justifies its predominance over the world.
Some people allege that derivativeness has always been characteristic of the Arab race ever since it has had contact with the history of the most ancient world. The Sumerians preceded the Arab peoples in Mesopotamia. They achieved a very great civilization, that can be ascertained from its remains. Hence, the Babylonians and Chaldeans were heirs of the civilization that already existed in Mesopotamia; they were originators or innovators.
When the Arabs re-emerged after Islam, they had their own civilization but still it was a copied one; it was not initiated or created by them. The derive character of this civilization was proved by making a statistical account of the savants and thinkers who were leaders of culture in the Arab State. They were mostly foreigners who became Muslims. Hardly any of them was originally Arab. And that is the argument with which European fanatics support their denial to all other peoples not related to them by kinship, of the faculty of initiation and creativity.
This book - as we see - is rendering a decisive judgment on this preposterous claim, or is at least indicating the probable and improbable claims made the examination of the Arabs' advantages is the substance of my thesis The Arabs' impact on European civilization).
We can throw doubt on this claim by asking in the first place where is that civilization that initiated and did not borrow? Then, where is that civilization whose scientists and savants were all of one pure race and had not admixed with other races?
The Greek, for instance, had borrowed before they innovated, and their savants and scientists had - as we have mentioned somewhere in this book - distinguished themselves in Asia Minor, the Aegean Islands, Sicily, Alexandria, Palestine, Syria and the limits of Iraq. Their distinction was not limited to one place that could be called the native place of the one pure race that had not been admixed by other races.
This applies to India, Persia and China as well as to any of the newly-emergent European states.
There is no doubt that the ancient Sumerians were of another genealogy other than the Arabs, from whom they differed in language and character. Different accounts were given about their origin. Some said they were the descendants of the Moguls; others said they were of Egyptian stock; other said were Europeans who had come down from the North.
However the allegation that the Arabs who inhabited their country had initiated nothing, is mere speculation and contexture. The world in their time, did not record a single feature of their civilization. When they developed relationships with the surrounding countries, then the Arab traits were conspicuously reflected in language, social customs, and thought. Hence it is pointless to affirm that the Arabs had copied and had not initiated, and that the Sumerians, who had anticipated them, had created and had not copied, although we are completely ignorant of their creative or original works.
It is true that during the reign of Islam foreign peoples took part in the development of culture. The greatest among them played a large in the promotion of science, and other studies. But that promotion came after the rise of Islam in these countries. In so far as their ancient glory is concerned, these foreign peoples had no advantage over the Arab race in the field of theoretic studies envisaged to enhance «Science for Science's sake», and not for application of utility in life.
For example, foreigners collected traditions in the initial stage of material-collection; a few of them were of pure Arab stock. Nobody claimed that the Arab had lacked the ability of story-telling, and learning lists of authorities and genealogies. The Arab learned by heart lists of authorities, genealogies and stories, a science that was not known to many urban and nomadic peoples. It is therefore necessary that we seek another reason than the racial one to explain the fewness of purely Arab scientists in some ages.
A further motive for seeking other reasons than the racial one is that purely Arab savants had worked on philosophy and wisdom on Andalusia, and during the reign of Alawides, and at the end of the rule of the Abasids. The history of Arab culture includes names of the Savants such as Ibn Al-Haitham, Al-Hassan Ben Ahmad Al-Hamdani (who died in 334), author of the books "Secrets of Wisdom and Ausab Homair" ( which is an encyclopedia of philosophic researches about the origin of the world, the principles of logic and rhetoric) and Ibn Al-Nadar the Judge (Al-Kadi), about whom Abu Al-Salat wrote in his treatise on soothsayers of Egypt,» The soothsayers in Egypt are the doctors. They cling to astrology of which they know nothing more than drawing a line and giving places of stars. They do not know deeper studies, cause and effect, and the principles of science, because they are not capable of rising to this level and exploring the stars except Al-Kadi Abaal-Hassan Ali Ben Al-Nadar, a well-known man of letters. He was one of the few notables reckoned among the blessings of fate.
He wrote translations and histories - particularly the «News of the Sages» by Kafti - He also wrote good résumé's of a number of Philosophers and Sages who had not been renowned at the beginning of Islam. The names of Kanadi, Muhammad Bin Ibrahim Ali Fazari, the three sons of Moussa Ben Shaker viz, Muhammad, Ahmad and Al-Hassan became famous among the foreign Savants who came of non-Arab stock.
We need not go far in seeking other reasons, than the racial one for the fewness of Arab Savants. There are many available reasons. The foreigners took up the art of writing before the Arabs because the latter were, at the beginning of Islam, engaged in leadership and world-wide conquests. They had to draw up the policies of the conquered countries. They therefore were not free to indulge themselves in art and science, which they assigned to their followers and subordinates.
Another reason was that the new states which had entered into Islam felt a great need to learn the Arabic language and Jurisprudence and search, for its sources. In their remote places, this was the only means by which they could maintain their religions, and the only thread that tied them to their state.
A further reason was that the Abbasid state patronized the foreigners and sponsored their studies. The Foreigners threw in their lot behind science and art, being sure that they would be remuneratively rewarded.
Another reason was that the number of distinguished foreigners was computed in proportion to the number of their people. But the number of the distinguished Arabs was computed in proportion to the number of invaders coming from the Arabian Peninsula, and that looks very small if we exclude those who remained behind in the desert to live their own life
Another reason is that conquered peoples take an interest in arguing and debating, as that compensates them for their lost prestige and sovereignty.
It follows that the racial shortcoming is not an established fact and cannot convince fair-minded people. It is established that the force which regenerated civilization in all the territories under Islam, had emanated from the Arabs. The patronage of the Islamic State allowed the continued existence of the remains of the Paranoiac, Greek, Persian and Indian civilizations. Had it not been for the positive genius of the Arabs, that force would not have come about, and that civilization would not have appeared.
Yet all that has been carried to us by the Islamic civilization was not purely Arab in its origin or development. Suffice it that it was not destroyed by them. The Islamic civilization linked up with ancient and modern history, thus preserving the whole human heritage, adding to it, and bequeathing it to succeeding civilization. Such an accomplishment is the best that can be expected from any civilization. Any claim of innovation or initiation from a civilization is tantamount to the nullification of all civilizations that had anticipated it, and that runs contrary to the greatest virtue of civilizations. That virtue lies in furtherance and preservation of the human heritage. The following is the heritage carried by the Arab civilization to the new world.
Medicine and Science
In the Odyssey Homer lauded the efficiency of the Egyptian doctor. Herodotus mentioned many times that they cured a great variety of diseases in which they specialized and excelled. He wrote once that Qorsh had invited an oculist from Egypt, and that Dara had admired and praised them very much. The Greeks know «Amhoteb» father of wisdom in Old Cairo, and used to call him in their own language «Amotycos». They learned from Egyptian Medicine a great number of cures and copied the Egyptian's surgery instruments as they were, with out effecting any change in them.
The Greeks also learned some medicine from the Chaldeans in ancient times, when it was mixture of witchcraft and incantation.
Then the wheel of human culture turned a complete cycle in this profession, which all people need. The Greeks returned to the Egyptians all they had taken from them with their own additions, that took place in the age of the Alexandria School. The Greeks also returned what they had taken from the Chaldeans and the Assyrians by the end of the East Romanian Empire. At that time there was leftover a portion of the heritage of the Monasteries and their priests. It was being taught to the students of science in Greek and Latin, who were mostly theologians
The Persians invoked the help of the Assyrian and Roman doctors, who established the School of Medicine and Hospital called «Jindisabur». All the surrounding peoples depended on this medical school and Hospital for completing their medical studies and learning the methods of medical treatment practiced by other. One of its talented Arab students was Al-Hareth Ren-Kelda who had learnt medicine before Islam, then adopted the Islamic faith.
Medical treatment was practiced by the Arabs many ages before Islam. They followed the Bedouin method of mixing medicine with sooth-saying, and cured diseases in primitive ways. Each tribe had its own fortune-teller, whom they consulted on all occurrences, including sickness and complaints.
A verse was said in this connection «I shall recognize the sagacity of the Fortune-tellers of Yamama and Najd, If they ever cure me».
The fortune-tellers used in their medical treatment, charms, incense and drugs which were often accompanied by incantations and spells. Besides the fortune- tellers, there were specialist doctors who did not practice sooth- saying or hoodwink the patient by uttering names of ginns or idols. They used to treat patients by bleeding, cauterizing, supping, putting them on diets and prescribing some drugs and herbs which used to grow in Arabia or be imported from India and China. The recommendations of these doctors reflect their skill in curing the body. As Al-Hareth Ben-Kelda put it.
(He who wants to live long must observe the following advice, Failing which there is no longevity. Take Lunch early; put on light clothes; and minimize intercourse with women).
Moawia asked him : « what is Medicine, Hareth? Hareth replied, «Hunger, Moawia. Hareth advised not to take a bath after eating and minimizing debts and worries. The doctors had an effective method for treating difficult cases. They used to take the patient to the Caravan routes where he could be seen by persons who had suffered the same disease. Then they would tell him the cure that had healed them.
It seems that the occupation of the Arabs with cattle grazing for a long time alienated them from witchcraft medicine and drew them nearer to medicine based on practical experiments. They watched pregnancy, birth, growth and the relevant stages of life evolution. They fixed the parts of the body, and had an almost correct knowledge of the location and function of its organs. With this knowledge they could nearly specify the disease and its remedy.
When Islam came, it wiped out witchcraft and opened the door wide for physical medicine. Islam tabooed treatment by witchcraft and superstition. It did not replace soothsayers and fortune-tellers with a new class that practiced that line of business in the guise of religion. The Prophet Muhammad (Peace be with him) permitted the consultation of doctors though they were non-Muslims. When Saad Ibn Abi Wakas fell sick during his farewell pilgrimage, the Prophet sent him back saying «I pray to Allah to restore your health so that you may strike the bad peoples and benefit the good ones». Then he said to Hareth Ben Kelda, «Treat Saad», and Hareth was a non-Muslim. Loqman the Wise was mentioned in the Quran with what means "We conferred on Loqman wisdom so that may thank- Allah. Medical treatment was over and above other though it was not a vocation for religious people".
For this reason Christian doctors multiplied in the Islamic State. Oriental Christian Doctors made many achievements in medicine while the European Church was banning the medical trade on the pretext that illness was a punishment meted out by Allah, which man should not interfere with. Medicine remained banned until the end of the so-called (Age of Faith», viz. at the beginnings of the 12th century A.D., dawn of the Andalusian civilization.
900 doctors were invited to sit for exam. in Baghdad during the reign of Al-Moqttader Bellah; in addition there were the professors, who were authorities in medicine and thus above examination. This points out great care for medicine and hygiene that had no parallel in any other ancient civilization.
The great number of doctors and teachers of medicine imply that medicine was being studied to cater for a whole society and not on individual initiative.
It is possible that at the beginning kings called in famous doctors; it is also possible that some Syrian and Byzantine monks and Savants were devoted to the study of science; yet the capital could not be served by more than one thousand doctors, all at one time, unless they needed to serve an extensive society. The Assyrians and Romans were tied down to their places during the reigns of the Caesars and Chosroes. They used to live among their peoples, relatives, books and possessions and had not moved away. Knowledge did not record such an achievement and living did not rise such a high standard under the banners of the Romans or the Persians. But the new thing to notice is the favorable reaction on society which was brought about by the rise of the new state, founded by Islamic ingenuity and on the tolerance of the tolerance of the new religion.
Industry was not in itself the target of that great movement of development and the wide range of education. Doctors used to add to the science of medicine other branches such as philosophy, engineering, astronomy, and chemistry. They so wrote books on these different branches of science and sought information on them wherever it was.
Some courses were sufficient to quality a student to practices the medical trade in those ages. But science we learnt for science's sake. The students were not satisfied with the books of the ancient Greeks, Persians and Indians. They referred to all information that could enlarge the scope of their research-work. They made equal treatises on books of medicine, engineering, astronomy, etc.
They wrote down all their readings and translations and compiled them in books. The result was the appearance of treatises that comprised Indian formulae besides the Arabian, or Persian or Greek ones. They were deep academic works, not written for making profit.
The under mentioned books were great treatises on Islamic medicine. They were unparalleled in their deep research and academic scope. These treatises were wholly translated into Latin. Consequently that trade was taken up by European doctors from time to time. Until the dawn of modern ages there had been no European scientists who hold a candle to the Arab authors in that branch of science. The Europeans are fond of alleging that they seek science for science's sake and accuse the Easterners of seeking science for money's sake. But this is not the case. The European doctors read Arabic reference books in order to derive there from the greatest benefit in making money. The monks and priests were an exception. They renounced mundane life, and not overtly seek money through practicing med and other trades.
The Book of Law by Ibn-Sina in the 12th century was translated. This book is a thesis on all the findings in medicine reached by the Arabs, Greeks, Indians, Assyrians and Anbath.
The `Magician' book by Al-Razi in 1279 was also translated. It is bigger and wider in range than the Book of Law. This book was completed by the disciples of Al-Razi after his death, because it was a work that could not be undertaken by one individual alone.
All the Books by Ben-Haitham were translated in that age. They were references in optics for all succeeding Europeans.
It has been found from the records of Louvan University that Al-Razi and Ibn-Sina books had been considered by the professors of that university as the only authentic references until the beginning of the 17th century. Further supplies came from Arabian Andalusia. Andalusia supplied Europe with the lengthiest reference book in surgery and the setting of Broken Bones. This book is entitled «Knowledge for Those Who Do not Have It» (Al-Taarif Liman Agaza An Al-Tasrif) by Abu-El- Kassem Khalaf Ben Al-Abbas. It was printed in Latin in the 15th century. Before it was put in print, it existed as loose-leaf lessons that were handed round by those who practiced in the trade to which they had referred in their surgical work, particularly in opening the bladder and extracting stones. The Great Physicist Haller said in the story of Gustav Lobon that books of Abu-Al Kassem were references for all the surgeons after the 14th century. He left a booklet on all the surgical instruments. The booklet showed drawings of these instruments, and explained how they were used.
Hospitals spread throughout the Islamic State after the third century A.H. The Arabs followed a clever system to ensure healthy air and a suitable location for the construction of hospitals, thus doing without the modern scientific methods adopted after the discovery of germs and the system of analysis wherever there was decay, they shunned the place and moved to another place where there were less signs of decay.
The Arabs took up medicine when it was in the course of its long transition between the ancient theories and the modern ones. There was the theory enunciated by Bokrat, viz. the cardinal humors were four blood, phlegm, gall and black bile; that illness was due to the disproportion of those humors, and that remedy thereof was effected by restoring their original proportion. Galen enunciated the theory that humors were four : they were heat, coldness, dryness and moisture. He who was hit by heat was to be remedied by coldness, and he who was hit by moisture was to be remedied by dryness. Thus each case of sickness was treated on these lines. But critics of these theories, particularly Bokrat's theory, multiplied among the students of the Alexandria School. Erasistratus condemned that theory and advised his followers to ignore it, and gave preference to close observation. Their successors wrote prescriptions in the light of information they obtained from the patients they had interviewed, and comparing the latter's cases with other patients. They put on record the symptoms of all cases.
When the Arabs took up medicine that trade was at cross-roads between oblivion into which it was falling and the new theories which were appearing. Science as a whole had not completely developed to devise new theories. They therefore relied on observation and experiment and did not completely depend on theories and invent new ones. They laid out remedies. They did not stick to Galen's theory of curing coldness with heat and vice-versa. Some used to remedy coldness with coldness in some cases, or combine heating, cooling and moistening. Said Ben Bashar, Principal of the First Aid Hospital in Baghdad used to do so. They also remedied by transplanting as could be inferred from their discourses on the functions of animal's organs.
They anticipated the Europeans in describing leprosy, small pox and measles and remedying eye-diseases. They broached the theory of Freud in psychological therapy and its connection with sexual matters. Their approach was made on experimental basis that deserves to be followed in collecting information and writing down observation. It is related that once the mistress of Al-Rashid had stretched out her hand beyond limit. She could not reflex it back to its proper place, and the hand remained stretched out. It was treated by rubbing over an ointment and fats, but that did not avail. Al-Rashid consulted Gabriel Ben Bakhtaishouh who explained as follows «If his highness the Commander of the Faithful will not get angry at me, may I try a trick? Al-Rashid replied, «And what is it?» Gabriel said «The concubine comes over here in the company of some people. Then I shall do with her what I like; please give me a chance and do not attack me». Al-Rashid ordered that the concubine be brought over to Gabriel. when she came, Gabriel strode toward her, lowered his head, and held the tail of her dress as if he wanted to strip her of it. The concubine was greatly upset, flung her hand downward and held back her tail. Then Gabriel told the Caliph of the Faithful, «She healed». Caliph of the Faithful asked him how that happened. Gabriel said, «This concubine is cold in her physical organs during intercourse; she needs light caressing, and generation of heat for a while; the abrupt end of intercourse freezes the remaining beat inside the nerves; it is unfrozen by a similar action. Heat has been evened, the frozen remainder has been unfrozen and now she is fit and sane».
Another story is related about Ibn Sina. He was once called to examine a young man, whose disease was unknown to the doctors. Ibn Sina gave order to bring a fortune-teller from the town. when the fortune-teller came, Ibn Sina held the hand of the young patient in order to feel his pulse and observe his face. Meanwhile, he asked the fortune-teller to enumerate the different quarters of the town. The fortune-teller enumerated them until he came to the name of one quarter. Then, the man's pulse increased. Ibn Sina asked the fortune-teller to enumerate the houses of that quarter, then the fortune-teller mentioned one particular house amongst them, the man's pulse increased more, Ibn Sina asked the fortune-teller about the female inmates of the house. Then he told the man's parents (Marry him to that girl because she is his remedy».
Arab Doctor used to treat mental incapacity in the same way as they treated physical disease Mental incapacity used to be called by the Franks «divine disease or devilish disease» because they believed it was inflicted by spirits or devils.
The Arabs' researches in medicine went hand-in- hand with their researches in chemistry. The Europeans greatly benefited from their researches in that new field and perhaps the benefits they derived from the Arabs' research in alchemy exceeded the information they gained from the Arabs in medicine.
The chemical term (alkali» is originally the Arabic word for silver wash, a most important acid used in chemical experiments, was not defined in any book before that of «Gaber Ben Hayyan». The credit for discovering ammonia, gold wash, potassium, sulphuric acid and other poisons known to the Europeans goes to him. His books «The Seventy» and «Chemical compositions» were translated into Latin at the beginning of the 12th century. His books remained reference authorities for the Europeans until the end of the 17th century, when his book; «Consummation» was translation into French in 1672.
The Books of «Al-Razi» and «Gaber Ben Hayyan» were copied. The Europeans learnt from these books the division of chemical substances into botanical zoological and mineral; and the most accurate sub-divisions of minerals ever known in the middle ages. The European history was not so much effected by Arabs' mineral discoveries as by their discovery of gun-powder which the Europeans used in manufacturing war missiles and weapons.
In physics the Arabs defined the specifies gravity of a great number of substances and precious stones. They reproduced the Greeks' concept of gravity and the cause of weight. It consists in the concept that heavy bodies gravitate towards their original minerals lying in the center of the Earth, and that ethereal bodies gravitate towards their origin in the sky. But Al-Biruni was doubtful of this concept and put a question to Ibn Sina which implied his inclination to the belief that all ethereal bodies gravitate towards the center of the Earth. The question reads as follows : «which of the two propositions is correct : 1) that water and earth converge on the center whereas air and fire diverge from it, 2) All these elements converge on the center, but the heavier precedes the lighter in its convergence».
All those views had paved the way for Newton's discovery of the Law of Gravity and lying down the causes of weightiness on the modern scientific basis.
Al-Biruni has the credit of being the first scientist to study liquids in springs on land and up-hill, and the forces that govern their flow in equilibrium and on heights. The sons of Moussa Ben Shaker, authors of the Book «Tricks» which is considered an original reference in «mechanics» before its last evolution in the machine age, were devoted readers of these research-works in Arabic.
Although the research-works on alchemy before the 18th century were simple, the Arabs' books and treatises were considered the best references in those sciences by Europeans and non-Europeans. They collected the different ancient information on zoology and botany and expanded and added to it. They imported information from India, Chaldea, Greece and Anbath. They relied on observation in their country and outside their country. Dia' El- Din Al-Malqi, known as Ibn-Bitar, is a case in point. He was born at Malqa and toured the Islamic world. He went as far as the farthest end of the Roman Empire in quest of herbs and other plants. The Impeccable Ayoubi appointed him head of Herbalists in the Egyptian State. That post corresponded with actual combined functions of a botanist and pharmacologist. He wrote a book entitled «The singular cures». That book contained the selected information accumulated in his time on that point.
It is mentioned in the book «European Civilization Politically, Socially and Culturally» by the Professors of Philosophy James Westphal Tosson, Franklin Charles Bam and Fan Nostrand that, «Most of the Greek» legacy of science was copied in Arabic in about two centuries Cairo, Baghdad, Qairawan and Carthage became outstanding centers of science and its education, The Greco-Arab culture began to infiltrate into Western Europe by the end of the 11th and 12th centuries.
Its infiltration was not a result of the Crusades invasions. It actually moved from Sicily to Italy; from Islamic Spain to Christian Spain and thence to France Quick-witted people vied with each other in proceeding to Palermo and Toledo, to learn the Arab language and other branches of Arab science. The striking thing about these people was that they were mostly English nationals such as Edillard Of Bath, Daniel Of Murley, Roger of Hertford and Alexander Nickouam. Edillard Of Baths' treatise on physical questions was the first scientific work ever produced by Western Europe in the Middle Ages. Some students stayed many years in Spain they passed the rest of their lifetime in translating the Arabs' scientific books into Latin. Gerard of Crimona, who died in 1187, translated 71 different books of those works at the age of 73. Plato of Tiffoli was next to Gerard in the abundance of production. And in this way Europe had acquired all the Greco-Arab output of science.
Scientific education at the modern universities became established. The pre-eminent scientists in the age of English Friars (1292 1214) was Roger Bacon, and he was not less glorious than Albert the Great. Both of them taught at the University of Paris. The thirteenth century hardly turned its fifties when a collection of those different branches of knowledge was compiled in a big Book by Vincent Of Bovis, which he called «Mirror of Nature» That Book contained all the information that had been collected in that age about Medicine, Cosmology, Astronomy, Geography, the Atmosphere, the Strata of the Earth, Minerals, Animals, Anatomy, etc.
The significance of the effect of these cultural work on Europe is not limited to the enumeration of information collected; to how much information the Arabs had given to or taken from the Europeans. The important thing to notice is that the Europeans had taken over the torchlight of science from the Arabs. With it they dispelled their obscurity and in its light they have made great achievements in modern science. Had not the Arabs carried that torchlight Eastward and Westward, the Europeans would have encountered many great difficulties in rekindling it. And had they succeeded in rekindling it, its light would have hardly lasted for three centuries. Man would not have attained that glorious achievement which has taken tens of conturies of human labor to materialize.
Geography, Astronomy and Mathematics
Ptolemy Author of the magesta, is considered the first teacher of Geography in very early times, and his name was the most famous one made known by the Arabs in Europe many centuries after his birth.
It is wrong to assume that Geography is originally Greek in its theories and hypothesis, because it is attributed to an author whose name is made up of Greek words, Potlemy himself drew much from the Egyptians and the Phoenicians. He was preceded by Greek geographers and travelers who relied on the peoples of Egypt and Babylon in proving the truth of the traditional theories of Geography, which cover amongst other things the Nile, Ethiopia and the seven zones of the world. The seven zones concept is Babylonia. The people of Babylon in ancient times used to talk about the seven planets and the seven days and looked to the number seven as divine characteristic.
Ptolemy was brought up in Alexandria. He drew from the Egyptian heritage information about astronomy! Almanacs travels, and travelers' stories about their trips on land and sea in Paranoiac times. These travels were so extensive among the ancient Greeks that they were reflected in the Iliad and Odyssey by Homer, and in the work of other poets.
As a result of the established relationship between the knowledge of the ancient Egyptians and the Alexandrians the schools of Geography greatly flourished in Alexandria. It had no much in the Roman Empire and Greece. In Alexandria Paulpious, Basedonious, Theovan and Methying became famous. Strabo also proceeded to Alexandria about one hundred years before Ptolemy. Apart from that, there were astronomers who were engaged in geographical researches.
Ptolemy pays tribute to «Marnious Al-Soury's» book which embodies the experience of Phoenicians and Egyptians. He relied much on that book in the division of latitudes and longitudes.
In effect, all historians are unanimously agreed that Europe had not known Ptolemy's geography before it was introduced to it through Arab culture. Geography was imported to the Europeans after the Muslim Geographers had elaborated and added to it, particularly the expeditions of Al Biruni to East Asia.
Ibn Younis Al-Masri invented the pendulum in the 9th century. Later its movement was adjusted and its formation regulated.
We must attribute the invention of the magnetic needle to the Arab and Muslim navigators. Their attribution to Chinese inventors is very doubtful. Similar is their attribution to the Romans and Greeks. There were unhindered exchange between the Chinese and Arabs in the field of navigation, as ships had been plying for a long time between the Arab Hira and Chinese ports. Gustay Lobon the scholar proved in his book about Arab civilization, that the needle was invented by the Arabs. His proofs is valuable if it lacks affirmative evidence, it is not wanting in likelihood.
There were outstanding geographers in the Islamic East, who added to `that branch of science sound conclusions derived from their observation of stars, and what they saw during their expeditions and investigations of history. But it was Andalusia which brought together the best of this information and diffused it through the adjacent European Countries. The Sherif El-Idrisi had the credit of collecting the material of this branch of science, renovating it, and promoting it among the distinguished class in his time. In the 12th century, the Norman King of Sicily, Roger II wanted to complete the geographical information obtained in his age. He found nobody other than Idrisi the Sherif to depend upon to do this task. Idrisi was born in Sabtah and had his tuition in Cordova; his fame spread throughout the civilized Islamic and Christian world. He wrote the book «Trip by a Traveler Eager To Explore The Horizons» The king made him a ball of silver, to stand for the Globe He was requested to mark on this ball all his findings about the Earth. The ball weighed 400 Roman Rotls. No one had preceded Idrisi in discovering the upper sources of the Nile which were then mapped out.
These maps are kept in some European museums, of which one is in the saint Martin Museum, shows the Nile flowing from lakes, to south of the Equator. It is to be noted that Geographers had, since the days of Herodotus who was an authority on history, been at a loss in determining the sources of the Nile and the causes of its flood. One of the maps portraying Columbus' picture of the globe had its contours and concepts taken from the Arabs. He imagined the globe like an oblong pear. One tip rises in India in climate, fruits, crops and water. Columbus' map was inspired by the map of Cardinal Peter Elaili, which was called imago mundi. The cardinal relied on Arab source in drawing the map, and published it at the beginning of the 15th century i.e. 80 years before Columbus set out on his voyage. This is a tribute paid to the Arabs in the discovery of the new world.
The Europeans used to believe, before the appearance and diffusion of Arab books on Geography - that the Earth was flat. That belief was consistent with the church's denial of the roundness and rotation of the Earth. Had that European belief continued to prevail, it would have been impossible for Columbus to think of sailing to the West in order to reach the Asian countries. The Arabs propagated that fact in the important books of Geography they had written. Ibn Kherdazba, Who died in 885 A.C. `wrote «The earth is a round ball, and lies inside the spheres in the same way as the yolk lies inside the egg». Ibn Rasta, who died in 903 wrote, Allah, be He praised, made the spheres as round as the ball, hollow and rotating. The Earth is also as round as the ball and solid, and lies inside the spheres) He gave evidence to this effect. He said, «The evidence of that fact lies in that the sun, the moon and other planets do not rise and set on all beings, all over the Earth at one time. They rise on the Eastern parts before they set on the Western parts. This is evidenced by what happens in the high permanents. When an occurrence takes place, it is seen in different shapes over the different parts of the Earth such as a lunar eclipse) when it is observed in two remote countries one in the East and one in the West. If for instance it is observed in the Eastern country in three hours, I state that it is observed in the Western country in as much less hours as the length of the distance between the two countries is... etc». Al-Massoudi, deceased in 956, wrote, «Allah be He Praised, made the higher sphere namely the Equinoxes circle, circle in type. There is in the first place the Earth which is surrounded by the sphere of the moon and the sphere of the moon is encircled by the sphere of Mercury etc». Al-Massoudi said in his Book «The Golden Beads» As the sun goes down in these isles i.e. the Oceanus Isles - it rises in the furtherest end of China, and that is half the circle of the earth)
Non-Geographers endorsed that fact by philosophic to a question put by Abu-Hussein Ahmad Al-Sahi about the existence of the Earth in Space and the maintenance of bodies fixed to it,» it is necessary that all heavy bodies organic or inorganic tend to and gravitate towards the center of the world». He summed up, ill concluding his treatise, the statements made by predecessors. He said, «Some predecessors made different propositions. followers of Pythagoras stated that the Earth was constantly revolving in a circle. Others said that it was falling downwards. Some others held that the Earth was static».
Thus the credit for spreading the knowledge of the roundness of the earth goes to the Arab books ! That knowledge was the first step that had paved the way for Columbus and his contemporary followers. But for that step, the people of North Europe would have been the first discoverers of the New world, as they were nearest to it, and were as conversant with navigation as the people of the southern coasts.
However, we came across a viewpoint expressed by some linguists and historians, which affirmed that the Arabs were the first people to discover the new world. They endorsed viewpoint by reliable linguistic and historical evidences. One of the most famous advocators of that view is Bishop Anistas the Carmelite who made extensive researches on words and their derivatives and history. In referring to the gulf stream he wrote
«The Arabs had anticipated all other peoples in recognizing the gulf stream and its characteristics. They knew its currency between Mexico and Ireland and vice-versa. They used to sail afloat it from one country to another; they surprised the inhabitants of the English Channel, i.e. the island of Tin and the inhabitants of Ireland. Where they left for Mexico some of them stayed over there; the few others returned home afloat that blessed gulf stream, thanking Allah for safe arrival. They used to stay in the territories known as Mexico». These territories were called by the Arabs after the name of animals. These names still survive until now, though the peoples inhabiting these territories do not understand their meanings. Neither do the Western scientists who adopt them».
Bishop Anistas continues to say, «Alligator is one of these names which is a kind of crocodile. The people do not know the source of this name. They simply attribute it to the place where that animal lives without any additions by them. That it was originally an Egyptian word is undoubted
We wish the evidence of the Arabs' discovery of the new world were stronger. The origin of the crocodile name from that Spanish word (alligator) is known. It is derived from the Spanish-root word «el lagarto» which was miscopied from the Latin word «lacerata», spiny-tailed lizard. The English word «lizard» is derived from the Latin root word, and lizard is the English name of that animal, and both are akin.
However, we do not agree with Bishop Anistas that Columbus was indebted to the references dating back to the 5th century A.D. in his discovery of the new world. This is understood from his treatise; he, «The first man to pay attention to that question was a monk called Brenden, the roving sailor. He was born in 483 A.D., and came of the Royal family of Ireland. In 545 A.M. he prepared himself with some other 14 adventurous monks to realize his long-cherished ambition of exploring the earth. They built a small ship. In 522 A.D. Brenden and his companions landed on the American coast. No doubt Columbus was fully informed of the news of Brenden's trip. He succeeded in convincing King Ferdinand and Queen Isabelle to approve of that trip in quest of the new world».
Brenden's story is doubtful because it has no original manuscript before the 11th century A.D. That story can plausibly be derived from an Arabic source. There was an Arabic narrative which related that some passengers landed on an extensively immense whale which they had believed to be an island. The whale moved and was about to drown them. The narrative did not give any description of the New World save the imaginary paradise promised for the devoted and saintly on Earth.
There were stories told by Arab Geographers about some venturers who had plunged into the Atlantic. Some of them had perished and the others returned with strange reports that sounded like fables. But the veracity of those stories was doubtful. AI-Massoudi alluded in his book «Morouj Al-Dahab» to those adventurous people. He said, «Some of them took the risk and endangered their lives by sailing; some perished; some came out safe with all they had seen and witnessed...
Another story by Al-Idrisi in his description of «a Feast for the Eager» (Nozhat Al-Moshtak). He said, «They left Lisbon and after twelve days, reached a billowy sea, badly smelling, full of shark and of dim light. They felt sure all was lost. They set sail southward and went on sailing for twelve days until they arrived at the Island of Cattle. There, they found innumerable cattle, grazing alone without a shepherd or overseer. They landed on the Island; there they found a running spring of water and a wild fig tree, bordering it. They slaughtered some of these cattle but found their meat sour and uneatable).
Al-Adrisi went on to say, «They were arrested and locked in a hours for three days. On the fourth day a man, speaking Arabic, entered the house and asked about their condition and where they had come from.
They told him their story. He promised them good news and told them that he was the interpreter of the King... When the king knew of their story, he laughed and told the interpreter, «tell the group that my father had ordered a number of his slaves to sail across that sea, and that they had been sailing across it for one month until light went out completely. They had to give up since their trip had failed.
Such stories are fabricated and doubtful, particularly when they recount that the adventurers found on the island «fair-complexioned men, with thin lank hair, a tall build-up, and astoundingly beautiful women»
Had those adventurers landed on the new continent, they would have seen there what Columbus saw, and returned with more credible reports than those descriptions. Their consensus adds nothing further to the guess that some Arab explorers had tried to explore the Atlantic but failed to reach its end. We can believe it, even confirm it without referring to these stories.
A stronger evidence of the precedence of the Arabs in exploring the New World is provided by the return of Columbus from America carrying gold mixed with copper in the same way and proportion as that adopted by the people of African Ghana. The language of the Red Indians include some European words, but it is intermixed with Arabic words. These Arabic words were older than the European words, and had been inflected and miss-constructed. However, the evidence of the gold alloy is stronger and more probable, as fixing the time when those Arabic words were merged in the languages of the Red Indians is next to impossible. This is due to the fact that expeditions between African Coasts and American Coasts, had greatly increased after the discovery of the New World. This was noticeable in the prosperous time of the Nakhassa, when the Nakhassa people and slaves intermingled with those who spoke Arabic in Western Africa. It is difficult to determine the histories of words in such languages as those of the Red Indians, which have no inscriptions or records.
It is worth reiterating Al-Biruni's statement that the whole matter relied on reports by reliable sources. The credit of the Arabs, based on the truths of geographic knowledge outweighs all other credit based on surmise.
Geography depends on these foundations : expeditions, investigation and star observation. And in all these fields the Arabs have left an unforgettable and undeniable heritage.
Traveling from the tenth to the sixteenth century was an Islamic art The People of Morocco particularly excelled in that art. They were the example for Europeans in that art. On the famous Muslim Travelers was Abu Obeid-Allah Al-Bakri, born at Murcia. He wrote two books «Ma'ogam Ma Est'agam» (Lexicon of Obscurities) and «Al-Massalek wa Al-Mamalek» (Routes and Kingdoms). He died at the end of the 11th century A.D. Another famous traveler was Al-Idrisi the Sherif, whom we mentioned before, Muhammad Ben Abdel-Rahman was also one of them. He was born in Cordova and wrote a book Nokhbat Al-Mzhan Fi Aga'eb Al-Beldan» (Most Enlightened thoughts about strange countries). He died in the 12th century. Other Arab travelers were ibn Gobeir who was born at Valencia before the mid-l2th century and wrote the story of his expedition which was widely known among Arab readers; and the greatest traveler of the 14th century, Ibn-Battuta, author of the book «Tohfat Al-Nozzar Fi Ghara'ib Al-Amsar) (Best sight-seeings in the strangest territories).
Other Oriental travelers were Al-Massoudi, Ibn Hawkal, Yakout Al-Hamawi, Al-Biruni and many others. But these travelers were not as famous as the Moroccans, and did not leave extensive works as the others had done.
The Muslim traces in Navigation are still extant in some European words which preserve their original Arabic form, for example the words `Tare' of the ship, is originally in 0Arabic «Tar'h»; the word `feloque' is derived from the Arabic word `folok'; the word `calfata' from the Arabic word «Qalfatta»; `Amiral (Admiral) from the Arabic word `Amiral-Bahr'; `arsenal' from the Arabic word «Dar-Essena'a); risk (meaning adventure in gaining) from the Arabic word `risk'; `avala' from the Arabic word `Hawala'; `a'vaare' from the Arabic word `Aware'; and the German word `wissil' from the Arabic word `wassl'; `calibre' from the Arabic word `qaleb'...etc. We find many related words in the languages of the Spanish and Portuguese peoples.
Many engraving have been found on the Coasts of the Baltic Sea and in North Europe which date back to the Middle Ages. Islamic money was found amongst them. This money indicates that there was trade between the Eastern countries and the Northern parts of Europe, and that these latter areas had come within the range of Islamic Geography either by commercial exchanges or by visits for sight-seeing.
However, if the arrival of the Arabs in America before Columbus is not definitively ascertained, it is undoubted that they had gone too far across the Atlantic Ocean and reached the Azores, and explored its Southern most coasts.
As to Geographical knowledge obtained from Astronomy the Arabs have the credit of having measured the circumference of the Earth in the reign of Caliph Al Maamoun; then they adopted Al-Birumi's system in measuring it. Al-Biruni calculated the heights of mountains in minutes and degrees. They rectified latitude and longitudes; they proved the Solar Equinox; they put an ac curate almanac, and perfect astronomical tables. Gustay Lobon said in his book on Arab civilization. The annual calendar, which was rectified during the reign of the Sultan King Shah is more correct than the Gregorian Calegorian Calendar, which was completed by the Europeans 600 years, later. The Gregorian calendar markes a difference-error of 3 days every 10,000 years, whereas in the Arab Calendar there is only a 2-day difference- error. They had known the measurements of the day- line 1,000 year before the Europeans. They discovered the third difference in the trajectory of the moon which had been overlooked by Ptolemy. The Arabs marked locations on maps, and corrected many mistakes made by the Greeks in the degrees of latitudes and longitudes, of which Ptolemy's were in point. The Arabs' mistakes did not exceed minutes whereas those of the Greeks surpassed degrees.
There is no need to go deep into the science of astronomy to evidence the influence of the Arabs on the European nations. The Arabic names of the stars and planets and the orbits terminology still hold in the European astronomical vocabulary. We mention a few words of the many hundreds of this vocabulary «Altarer» «Cursa»(from Korsi-Gaoza) «Caph» «Arnab» «Arkab» from «Arkoub» in Arabic, «Azimuth» «Azha», ««Botein», «Zuben Hakrabi» from (Zabanti Al-Akrab) . «Wezn» , «Vega» from (Al-Nisr A Wagi), «Saros» (from Sahour). (Saif) «Sadr» (from Sadr Al-Dagaga), «Sadalsud» from (Saad Al-Soud), «Rigel» (from Rigl Al-Gabbar), Zaurek, Tauri (Karn Al-Thaur), «Errai» «Deneb» from (Dahab)... and many similar names which retained their original form apart from those which were translated.
The relationship between astronomy and mathematics sums up the share of Arab culture in mathematics in its aggregate. The tiles here may save us the trouble of pointing out the details which will be numerated in this lengthy chapter «Algebra» is an Arabic name and is called by it in all the European languages. The Greeks stopped at the elementary theories elaborated by Diophanstus, the Alexandrian Greek in the third century Gustav Lobon gave a resume' of the Arabs' advance in these branches of science. He said, the Arabs had introduced the tangent in trigonometry; they had solved cubic equations, and made extensive studies on cones, and replaced chords by sines. They also laid down basic theories for the solution of trilineal figures. Some authorities were quoted to have said that the innovations and additions of the Arabs were indeed a scientific revolution that had far-reaching effects.
Easterners are not over standing the fact that they had risen to the top of all branches of mathematics by grace of some Islamic mathematicians. Professor Karl Sachaw, who used to teach Semitic languages at the University of Vienna, said that Boiruni was at the top of all world geniuses.
Professor Laland, the famous French Astronomer of the 13th century, said about Al-Batani that he was one of the twenty greates mathematician in the ancient and modern world.
To throw more light on the rise of mathematics we have to ignore the nonsense talked by some modern Europeans to give credit to the Greeks alone for the initiation of geometry and application of mathematical theories to astronomy and other arts. Some of these Europeans were so fanatic that they pay tribute to Talis for his ability to predict an eclipse and ignore the tangible facts which evidence the priority of Egyptians and Babylonians in the field. Some of them wrote about the history of Greek Philosophy in the past and present, such as John Burnet; other wrote about the history of that philosophy from Talis to Plato, and ignored what Plato himself had written about the rise of mathematics. Plato stated in the Phaedras dialogues that Tout the Egyptian God, had invented arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and writing. Plato blamed his people on not caring as much as the Egyptians for those branches of science, as is mentioned in the seventh chapter of «The Laws» where he said (the free should learn about these questions to the same extent as the Egyptians spend on tuition for a great number of children when they learn writing), the Egyptian children learn gradually addition, subtraction, division and move to the solution of problems on the measurement of lengths, surfaces and cubes. Plato concluded the dialogue in the words of the Athenian who expressed his regret for the prevailing shameful and ridiculous ignorance of other peoples in those studies.
Euclid, who came from tyre, had learnt from the disciples of Plato in Athens. He used to hear them speaking about the Egyptian Sages' fondness of mathematics and its wide scope of studies as a whole. No wonder then that he left for Alexandria, cut a figure in geometry that had been unmatched by the Athenians, who were limited to learning the information accumulated by their country on that Subject, without moving to either Egypt or Mesopotamia.
Talis himself came to Egypt. Heronymus said about him, «he began learning only when he came to Egypt and mixed with priests»
Herodotus imparted to us the story of Talis' prediction of eclipses; it is he who recounted that the Greeks had copied from the Babylonians the measuring instrument for calculating the motion of the sun through ecliptic, and the equinoxes on the basis of the sundial. Some books of history of mathematics allege that the Babylonians had observed eclipses and calculated their recurrence after every 223 lunar rotation, i.e. every 18 years and 11 days. They adopted that calculation from unknown times before any observation was ever ascribed to the Greeks.
It is therefore incongruous that the world be blinded by racial fanaticism and deny facts because science and quest of truth are inseparable. However overstated the contribution of the Greeks to the mathematical heritage may be, it is an unquestionable fact that they had taken from the Orient before the Orient took from them, and that the sons of that Orient handed over that legacy to the Europeans, after they had elaborated and added to it their innovations.
Literature
In «The Legacy of Islam» Professor Gibb wrote a very interesting chapter on the influence of the Arabs on European literature. He quoted some excerpts from the lectures of Professor Mackail on poetry. He said «Europe is indebted to Arabia for her «Romance» movement and to Judea for her faith.»... «And we - Europeans - are indebted to the Arabs in Arabia and Syria for most of the driving forces - or all those forces - which turned the Middle Ages into a different world in spirit and imagination from that by Rome».
Professor Gibb does not admit this generalization; neither does he negate it completely. However, he does not deny the influence of the Arabs on European poetry and prose from the 13th century up to modern times. He believes that Arab influence infiltrated into European literature through the inspiration and tales told by Muslims who spoke Arabic and some other European languages as well as by some poets of Southern France whose knowledge of Arabic has not been ascertained.
However, we believe that the flourishing of Arabic literature in Andalusia and its legacy could not he ignored by the history of Europe. Arabic literature has directly influenced the tastes, thoughts, topics, psychological motives, and linguistic construction of the Europeans.
This belief is confirmed by the fact that there were three inroads which carried Arab culture to Europe in the Middle Ages. First of all, there were the commercial convoys which used to ply between Asia, and Eastern and Northern Europe by the Caspian Sea and through Constantinople. Perhaps, by that route, news of the Muslims had reached Scandinavia.
Secondly, the Crusaders' long occupation of some land between Syria, Egypt and other Islamic countries. Thirdly, the rise of Islamic states in Andalusia and Sicily and other countries, and the spread of the Arabic language there.
Arabic poems were linked with names of some gifted poets of Europe who lived in the fourteenth century and after. Their connection with Arab culture cannot be doubted or denied. We mention in particular Boccacio, Dante and Patrarch the Italians, the English poet Chaucer, and the Spanish Cervantes, who had the credit of revitalizing the ancient arts of those countries.
In 1349 Boccacio wrote his «Decameron» in which he adopted the pattern of «Arabian Nights» or «One thousand and one nights» which was then in circulation in Egypt and Syria. He compiled one hundred stories on the lines of «One thousand and one Nights», and ascribed them to seven ladies and three men who had fled from the town and took refuge in the suburbs for fear of being overtaken by plague. Each was called upon to narrate a story every morning to pass the time. These stories spread all over Europe. Shakespeare derived from them the subject of his comedy «ALL'S WELL THAT ENDS WELL»; similarly Lessing, the German poet, derived NATHAN THE WISE».
In English Poetry, Chaucer was the greatest plagiarist in his age. After he returned from Italy, he compiled his Canterbury tales on the lines followed by Boccacio in his (Decameron), of which one is the story of (the Kinght) which was borrowed from «One thousand and one Nights». He began his tale with the description of a court belonging to one of the Khans of the Tartars or Moguls. The Western Poets continued spinning their stories on those lines until Longfellow author of the bock (Tales of Khan at the turning of the Road».
Perhaps Dante's connection with Arab culture is more pronounced than Bocaccio's and Chaucer's. He lived in Sicily during the reign of King Frederick II who was given to the study of Arabic references on Islamic culture.
Dante and the King used to debate Aristotel's School. Some of those debates were taken from Arabic sources and were written in manuscripts which are still kept in the library of Sir Thomas Bodley in Oxford. More than one Orientalist has noticed the close similarity between the description of Paradise by «Mohiuddin Ibn Arabi» and in Dante's «Divine Comedy». Dante knew much about the Prophet Muhammad, and must have read the chapter about The Night Journey, the Prophet's trip across the seven heavens. He also might have read the «Message of Absolution» by Abu El-Ala. From all those readings he derived his Journey To The Next World as described in «The Divine Comedy». Professor Asin Palacios, a Spanish Scholar devoted to Arab Studies, is an authority on derivation by Westerners
Petrarch lived during the age of Arab culture in France and Italy. He learnt at the Universities of Montpellier and Paris, which where founded by disciples of the Arabs that had graduated from the Andalusia Universities. Cervantes lived in Algeria for some years and wrote his «Don Quixote». Those who read «Don Quixote» will never doubt the wide-reading of Cervantes in Arabic and his borrowing of Arabic sayings and proverbs which are still current among the Arabs. Prescott, a wide-read scholar in Spanish history, affirms that the comedy of «Don Quixote» is wholly Andalusian in its core.
But the influence, which surpasses the effects of all those individual borrowings and derivations, is that comprehensive one which had had the credit of reviving modern European languages and promoting them to the ranks of literature and science, after they had been ignored by scientists, and scholars, whose literary and scientific works used to be written in Latin and Greek. Authorship of those work was restricted to theologians and their life, who arrogated learning to themselves alone to the exclusion of the masses of the people.
The adoption of Arabic as a means of education resulted in the neglect of Latin and Greek, and revival of the Popular language and the leanings of poetry rhetorics and science from sources other than priests and monks who were devoted to theology. Dozy quotes in his book, «Andalusian Islam», the message of the Spanish writer Al-Farro, who was greatly embittered at the neglect of Latin and Greek and the enthusiasm for learning the Muslim language. Al-Farm said, «Our intellectual class have been transported by the charm of the Arabic language, and have consequently neglected Latin and written solely in the language of their conquerors». Another more patriotic contemporary was embittered at that state of things and wrote. «My Christian brothers are enchanted by the Arabs' poems and narrative. They therefore study the works written by the Muslim Philosophers and Scholars. They learn, not to rebut and refute, but to imitate the style of classical Arabic. Who else other than theologians that read interpretations of the Gospel and Bible? Who reads these days the testaments and prophets' scriptures? Alas, the rising generation of intelligent Christians master no other literature and language than Arabic. They voraciously read Arabic books and heap up stocks of these books in their libraries at the highest prices. They chant everywhere the praises of the Arabic treasures, whereas they refuse to hear of Christian works when they are mentioned. They allege that Christian works are worthless and do not deserve to be given attention. How sad The Christians have forgotten their language. You seldom find one among a thousand Christians who writes to a friend in Christian language. As to Arabic, how innumerable are those who can give its best expression and excel the Arabs themselves in the composition of poems.
Dante said that the Italian poetry had been born in Sicily, that poems were greatly composed in vernacular in Provence where the Latin peoples of the South met. Wandering poets spread from that territory. They were known by the name «Troubador». The Europeans derived that name from the original word «Trobar», which Orientalists believe to be taken from Arabic word «Tarab or Tarob» meaning ecstasy). The name of their poem «tenson» is derived from the Arabic word «Tanazo» meaning (competition) They used to compete with each other in the composition of poems wherein they boasted of their glories and made pretensions as today's glib tongued Bedouins do. It is noticeable that there is close similarity between the meters of their poems and those of Andalusiverses. Verse had appeared before them; it was sung by singers at homes and in fairs. In the European poems of North Andalusia, there have been found Arabic words and reference to customs that had existed among Muslims alone, namely allotment of the fifth of cattle to the ruling Prince.
The relationship between Arabic Literature rather Islamic Literature as a whole and Modern European Literature has continued since the 17th century. Suffice it as an evidence of the influence of Islamic literature on European literature that we scarcely find a man of letters whose poetry and prose is devoid of an Islamic hero or anecdote. Of these literary people are Shakespeare, Addison, Byron, Southey, Coleridge, Shelley from England; Goethe, Herder, Lessing, Henine from Germany, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Hugo and La Fontaine from France. La Fontaine said that he had spun his fables on the lines of «Kalila and Demna» which was introduced to the Europeans by the Muslims.
The European story was influenced during its rise by the technique of the Arabic novel of the Middle Ages namely, the ballad, epic, adventures of knights for romance and glory, etc. Some European critics believe that Gulliver's Traveis by Swift, and Robinson Crusoe by Defoe are indebted to Arabian Nights and «Message from Hai Ben Yakzan» which was written by the philosopher Ibn Tofail. The «Arabian Nights» exerted a stronger influence after its translation at the beginning of the 12th century, that had surpassed all effects it had by reputation before the publication of its translation. That was paralleled by the Translation of similar literary works. This tendency to turn to the East become as familiar in literature as it was in politics and colonization.
The School of Romantic chivalry of Medieval Europe is the offshoot of the chivalrous life of the Arab and Muslim conquerors who had introduced it to the West. This life prevailed in the West as a result of the practical lead the Arab and Muslim conquerors had inevitably taken. «Abanese» the Spanish writer believes, as mentioned in another part of this book - that Europe had not known knighthood, its, arts and enthusiastic drive before the arrival of Arabs in Andalusia, and the spread of their knights and heroes in the Southern regions. The belief of Abanese had much evidence to support it. The strongest evidences endorsing it is that a new military pattern which was not known to the heroes of Roman and Greek battles before, the burning love which had no match in the erotic poetry of the Northern and Southern peoples, the chivalrous edification of the sweetheart in the same way as that followed by Muslim ascetics who combine worship with chanting the grace of love. Although the love poetry did not rise in European literature to that plane.
The Spanish and Portuguese people drew from the Arabs quite a number of Arabic words that could make up a fairly big glossary. However it is not a question of compiling a glossary of words; what counts is the currency of these new words as an instrument in social life and expressing one's purpose and intent. However these words were not assimilated in the languages until their instrumentality in catering for living, and thinking had been established. Hence, much more credit must go to the sources of its inscription and orientation than to those who copied and inculcated them.
Fine Arts
There are two arts which unfortunately had no great share in Arab Civilization, i.e. acting and the plastic arts forms, painting and sculpture.
Like all other Eastern and Western peoples in ancient history, the Arabs did not know much about acting and the plastic arts. These two arts were not much known to civilized peoples. It follows that they were utterly unknown to uncivilized Bedouins.
In Greece, acting began with religious rituals during Dionysus ceremonies. It was limited in its initial stage, to dancing and singing. Then one more actor was added to fill up the time between dancing and singing by doing some acts and singing some hymns. The more actors were successively added, and acts were accordingly increased in one show. This development ended in the form of the theatrical play, as laid down by the ancient Greeks.
Nations, whose primary religious cults had no such rituals did not have the chance to develop the art of acting on these lines. Arab society might have had other reasons than those of worship, which blocked the development of acting on social grounds. Acting is an art which is closely connected with social life. Acting could not be conceived in a society which has not a multitude of social aspects which differ with the variety of work, trades, tastes and classes of the people. Acting from the social standpoint is based on response between individuals and families as and when their relationships are multiplied, and their tastes and inclinations are variegated. Bedouin society did not have a wide scope for this kind of multi form response between family and family, and individual and individual. They well reflected their social life, whether Bedouin or urban in the ballads, songs chivalrous sports, debates and boasting.
As regards the Arabs' lack of Plastic Arts, many unconvincing reasons were given. Amongst these reasons are the allegation that the Arabs lacked in sensitivity, or that their sensations were too weak to be reflected by representation or figuration.
It was alleged that the Plastic Arts had not greatly advanced under the Arabs in view of religious factors. But those hostile to Semitic intuition retorted by alleging that banning of pictures and statues was a result of the limited range of permissible and exhaustion of sensibility, and was not the basic reason for the Arabs' abandonment of picture-drawing and sculpture.
It was said : «In view of the lack of sympathy between the Arab and the animal, he did not represent creatures and paint them on buildings and paper as did the ancient Easterners».
But the fact, which is forgotten by those who make these allegations, is that other peoples do not have closer and more generous sympathy with living creatures than that between the Arab and his steed, or she-camel, hounds, the deer, gazelle, fowl and other animals. A Bedouin poet seldom composed a poem which did not begin with the description of his beautiful love, or his steed and she-camel. No poets of other ancient nationalities likened the beauty of lovers and beauties to that of deer and gazelles as does the ancient Arab poets and their followers. This is without doubt a piercing sensitivity which found its way to self-expression by means of one of those arts within reach of the sons of the Desert. Portrayal is not the sole means of reflecting one's sensations, particularly in a Bedouin environment, which was short of all means of portrayal.
Now that we are at the outset of discussing the taboo on pictures, it is worth mentioning that taboo was observed by many people in Asia Minor. It was vigorously advocated by a large number of the followers of the Eastern Roman Church, who were called «Iconoclast». Their call in the 7th century was a forerunner of the separation of the Eastern Church from the Western Church. However, the Western Church had after separation some staunch followers of those taboos. Had not the temples sponsored the arts of sculpture and painting it would have been uncertain that the social requirements of the European nations could have satisfied the needs of those two arts and supplied them with talented sculptors and painters.
In this connection, it may be said that the Arabs differed from the Europeans in the evolution of the arts of sculpture and painting just as the plan of the mosque differs from that of the church suggested by their respective cults.
There was no place in Islam for mediators between Allah and Man. It also had no place for the mystery of priesthood and its channel and the embodiment of Allah and saints. Furthermore, it is inconceivable in Islam that it sponsors those arts which cater for the decoration of the temple with paintings and statues. In effect there is no better incentive for the promotion of arts than the sponsorship of temples and the zeal for cults. Both greatly contributed to the promotion of architecture among Muslims in the same way as glorification of saints had contributed to the promotion of sculpture and painting among the Europeans.
The Mosque did not embrace paintings and statues, and consequently Islamic civilization had no wide scope for them as the European civilization has had.
But that did not hamper the rise of beautiful buildings and splendid domes, which were the bases for Arabesque architecture. Arabesque architecture can stand the comparison with the best arts of building in the past and at present.
The intuition of the Arabs - rather of the Easterners - had a particular trait which implied the independence of their style from the patterns from which the Arabs drew the art of building.
It is a mistake to state for instance - that the Byzantine style was the basis of that school which adopted that pattern of building in the East, because the Byzantine style was a characteristic trait of the East which distinguished it from the European styles such as the Gothic and Romanesque. Had there not been that suggestive trait of the East, there would not have been that distinction between the style of Byzantine architecture and that of the Germans or Italians.
It is undoubted that the Arabs relied in architecture on the arts of building of their predecessors such as the Persian, Romans and Egyptians. They recruited some Copts and Armenian masons in building many big buildings. Doubtless, the building hands were only the expression of the